Music and distraction

Gwern Branwen

Music and distraction

DNB, music distraction, tech

Does music impede studying and thinking?

2012-09-26^–_6y2019-03-03 notes certainty: unlikely importance: 7 backlinks

Bibliography

[Warning: JavaScript Disabled!]

[For support of key website features (link annotation popups/popovers & transclusions, collapsible sections, backlinks, tablesorting, image zooming, sidenotes etc), you must enable JavaScript.]

We like music but does it help or harm cognitive performance when we have music playing all the time?

Note this is a different question from the Mozart effect in that the Mozart-effect studies usually test performance after listening to classical music, while we’re interested in performance during listening to all kinds of music; the Mozart effect has been largely debunked (no/small effect) but that doesn’t tell us much about during music (it could be performance fell during listening and recovered afterwards when tested).

Current best meta-analysis: “The impact of background music on adult listeners: A meta-analysis”, Kampfe et al 2011_13ya?

“Spherion Survey: Workers Say Listening to Music While Working Improves Job Satisfaction, Productivity; Nearly one-third of adult workers listen to music at work using an iPod, MP3 player or similar personal music device”

https://web.archive.org/web/20120604083935/http://hr.blr.com/HR-news/HR-Administration/Communication/Workers-Say-Listening-to-Music-Boosts-Job-Satisfac/ http://www.musicworksforyou.com/research/research-topics/8-productivity http://www.musicworksforyou.com/research/research-topics/10-branding https://digital.library.txstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10877/5483/Thesis%20Final1.pdf?sequence=1 The effects of music on mood, anxiety, and job satisfaction: self-reports from occupational workers “The myths of the digital native and the multitasker”, Kirschner & De Bruyckere2017

Summary of Perham & Sykora2012:

In lab studies, people who listen to music they like, generally perform better at mental tasks afterwards, an effect that’s been attributed to boosts in mood and arousal. But what about the effect of background music that plays on during a task - more akin what we do in real life? This is actually less studied. The traditional mood-arousal literature would predict it to be beneficial too, especially if the music is to the listener’s taste.

However, there’s another line of research, known as the “Irrelevant Sound Effect”, that’s all about the way background sounds can interfere with our short-term memory for ordered lists, which would be a bad thing for many work-related tasks. These studies show that the distraction is greater when the sound is more acoustically varied - just like your typical pop song. Based on this, Nick Perham and Martinne Sykora made a counter-intuitive prediction - background music that you like will be more detrimental to working memory than unappealing music, so long as the liked music has more acoustical variation than the disliked music.

Twenty-five undergrads completed several serial recall tasks. They were presented with strings of eight consonants and had to repeat them back from memory in the correct order. Performance was best in the quiet condition, but the key finding was that participants’ performance was worse when they completed the memory task with a song they liked playing over headphones (Infernal’s “From Paris to Berlin”), compared with a song they disliked (songs such as “Acid Bath” from the grind core metal band Repulsion). In case you’re wondering, participants who liked Repulsion were excluded from the study.

Particularly relevant, since people like to claim their favorite music “helps them focus” (especially if it’s vocal? per the irrelevant speech effect):

A further intriguing detail from the study is the participants’ lack of insight into the degree of distraction associated with each type of music. Asked to judge their own performance, they determined correctly that their memory was more accurate in the quiet condition, but they didn’t realise that their performance was poorest whilst listening to the music they liked.

Physical activity:

Barney et al 2012_12ya, “College Students’ Usage of Personal Music Players (PMP) during Exercise” https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ973952
“Music in the exercise domain: a review and synthesis (Part I)”/“Music in the exercise domain: a review and synthesis (Part II)”, Karageorghis & Priest2012

Bibliography

Abikoff, H., Courtney, M. E., Szeibel, P. J., & Koplewicz, H. S. (1996_28ya). “The effects of auditory stimulation on the arithmetic performance of children with ADHD and non-disabled children”. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 29(3), 238-246. doi:10.1177/002221949602900302
Allen & Blascovich 1994_30ya, “Effects of Music on Cardiovascular Reactivity Among Surgeons”
Anderson 2007_17ya, “The Effect of Music on the Reading Comprehension of Junior High School Students” (apparently republished as Anderson, S. A., & Fuller, G. B. (2010_14ya). “Effect of music on reading comprehension of junior high school students”. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(3), 178)
Bonin & Smilek2015, “Inharmonic music elicits more negative affect and interferes more with a concurrent cognitive task than does harmonic music”
Burleson et al 1989_35ya, “The effect of background music on task performance in psychotic children”
Boyle, R., & Coltheart, V. (1996_28ya). “Effects of irrelevant sounds on phonological coding in reading comprehension and short-term memory”. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 49(2), 398-416.
Brodsky & Slor 2013_11ya, “Background music as a risk factor for distraction among young-novice drivers”
Cassidy & MacDonald 2007_17ya, “The effect of background music and background noise on the task performance of introverts and extraverts”
Christopher2015, “Music helps me do my homework: a student’s conundrum”
Davies, D. R., Hockey, G. R. J., & Taylor, A. (1969_55ya). “Varied auditory stimulation, temperament differences and vigilance performance”. British Journal of Psychology, 60,453-457.
Davies, D. R., Lang, L., & Shackleton, V. J. (1973_51ya). “The effects of music and task difficulty on performance at a visual vigilance task”. British Journal of Psychology, 64, 383-389.
Dolegui 2013_11ya, “The Impact of Listening to Music on Cognitive Performance”
Doyle, M., & Furnham, A. (2012_12ya). “The distracting effects of music on the cognitive test performance of creative and non-creative individuals”. Thinking Skills And Creativity, 7(1), 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2011_13ya.09.002
Fogelson, S. (1973_51ya). “Music as a distractor on reading-test performance of eighth grade students”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 36(3), 1265–1266.
Fox & Embrey 1972_52ya, “Music: an aid to productivity”. Applied Ergonomics, 3: 202-205
Freeburne, C. M., & Fleischer, M. S. (1952_72ya). “The effect of music distraction upon reading rate and comprehension”. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 43(2), 101-109. doi:10.1037/h0054219
Furnham, A., & Bradley, A. (1997_27ya). “Music while you work: The differential distraction of background music on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extroverts”. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11(5), 445-455
Furnham et al 1999_25ya, “The distracting effects of vocal and instrumental music on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts”
Furnham and Allass 1999_25ya “The influence of musical distraction of varying complexity on the cognitive performance of extroverts and introverts”
Furnham, A., & Strbac, L. (2002_22ya). “Music is as distracting as noise: the differential distraction of background music and noise on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts”. Eronomics, 45, (3), 203-217.
Garza-Villarreal et al 2017, “Music-induced analgesia in chronic pain conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis”
Gonzalez & Aiello2019, “More than meets the ear: Investigating how music affects cognitive task performance”
Hallam et al 2002_22ya, “The effects of background music on primary school pupils’ task performance”
Henderson, M. T., Crews, A. A., & Barlow, J. J. (1945_79ya). “A study of the effect of music distraction on reading efficiency”. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 29(4), 313-317. doi:10.1037/h0056128
Huang & Shih 2011_13ya, “Effects of background music on concentration of workers”
Jerison, H. J. “Effects of noise on human performance”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1959_65ya, 43, 96-101.
Judde, S., & Rickard, N. (2010_14ya). “The effect of post-learning presentation of music on long-term word-list retention”. Neurobiology Of Learning And Memory, 94(1), 13-20. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2010_14ya.03.002
Kantner, J. (2009_15ya). “Studying with music: Is the irrelevant speech effect relevant?”. In M. R. Kelley (Ed.), Applied memory (pp. 19-40). Hauppauge, NY US: Nova Science Publishers.
Kuschpel et al 2015, “Differential effects of wakeful rest, music and video game playing on working memory performance in the n-back task”
Lake & Goldstein 2012_12ya, “An examination of an enhancing effect of music on attentional abilities in older persons with mild cognitive impairment”
Lesiuk, T. (2005_19ya). “The effect of music listening on work performance”. Psychology of Music, 33, 173-191. doi:10.1177/030535605050650
Li, B., Parmentier, F. R., & Zhang, M. (2013_11ya). “Behavioral distraction by auditory deviance is mediated by the sound’s informational value: Evidence from an auditory discrimination task”. Experimental Psychology, 60(4), 260-268. doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000196
Martin, R. C., Wogalter, M. S., & Forlano, J. G. (1988_36ya). “Reading comprehension in the presence of unattended speech and music”. Journal of Memory and Language 27(4), 382-398.
Mayfield, C., & Moss, S. (1989_35ya). “Effect of music tempo on task performance”. Psychological Reports, 65(3, Pt 2), 1283–1290. doi:10.2466/pr0.1989_35ya.65.3f.1283
Miller2014, “The differentiated effects of lyrical and non-lyrical music on reading comprehension”
Mitchell, A. H. “The effect of radio programs on silent reading achievement of ninety-one sixth grade students”. Journal of Educational Research, 1948_76ya, 42, 460-470.
Morris, N., & Jones, D.M . (1990_34yaa ). “Habituation to irrelevant speech: Effects on a visual short-term memory task”. Perception and Psychophysics, 47, 291 - 297.
Mowsesian, R., & Heyer, M. R. (1973_51ya). “The Effect of Music as a Distraction on Test-Taking”. Measurement & Evaluation In Guidance, 6(2), 104-110.
Pacheco-Unguetti, A. P., & Parmentier, F. R. (2013_11ya). “Sadness Increases Distraction by Auditory Deviant Stimuli”. Emotion, doi:10.1037/a0034289
Parente, J. A. (1976_48ya). “Music preference as a factor of music distraction”. Perceptual And Motor Skills, 43(1), 337-338. doi:10.2466/pms.1976_48ya.43.1.337
Patania et al 2020, “The Psychophysiological Effects of Different Tempo Music on Endurance Versus High-Intensity Performances”
Perham, N., & Currie, H. (2014). “Does listening to preferred music improve reading comprehension performance?”. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28(2), 279-284. doi:10.1002/acp.2994
Perham & Sykora 2012_12ya, “Disliked Music can be Better for Performance than Liked Music”
Pool, M. M., Koolstra, C. M., & Van Der Voort, T. A. (2003_21ya). “Distraction effects of background soap operas on homework performance: An experimental study enriched with observational data”. Educational Psychology, 23(4), 361-380. doi:10.1080/01443410303211
Ransdell, S. E., & Gilroy, L. (2001_23ya). “The effects of background music on word processed writing”. Computers in Human Behavior, 77(2), 141-148.
Salame, P., & Baddeley, A. D. (1989_35ya). “Effects of background music on phonological short-term memory”. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 41(1), 107-122.
Super, D. E.; Braasch, W. F Junior, & Shay, J. B. “The effect of distractions on test results”. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1947_77ya, 38, 375-377.
Threadgold et al 2019, “Background music stints creativity: Evidence from compound remote associate tasks”
Tucker, A., & Bushman, B. J. (1991_33ya). “Effects of rock and roll music on mathematical, verbal, and reading comprehension performance”. Perceptual And Motor Skills, 72(3, Pt 1), doi:10.2466/PMS.72.3.942-942
Woo Ee, W., & Kanachi, M. (2005_19ya). “The Effects of Music Type and Volume on Short-Term Memory”. Tohoku Psychologica Folia, 6468-76
Zimmer & Brachulis-Raymond, 1978_46ya “Effects of distracting stimuli on complex information processing”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 46, 791-794.

Colbert 1961_63ya “The effects of musical stimulation on recall in high and low anxiety college students”. Dissertation Abstracts, 1961_63ya, 21 , 3172 . http://worldcat.org/oclc/10121882 TODO
Williams ( 1961_63ya ) WILLIAMS, T. B. “A study of the effect of music as a distractor on the mental test performance of certain eleventh grade students”. Dissertation Abstracts, 1961_63ya, 22, 168. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10517689 TODO
Belsham & Harman 1977_47ya, “Effect of vocal versus non-vocal music on visual recall”, Perceptual and Motor Skills
Chertock, S. L. “Effect of music on cooperative problem solving by children”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1974_50ya, 39, 986.
Culbert, S. S., & Posner, M. I. “Human habituation to an acoustical energy distribution spectrum”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1960_64ya. 44, 263-266.
Daoussis, I. & McKelvie, S. (1986_38ya). “Musical preferences and the effects of music on a reading comprehension test for extroverts and introverts”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 62: 283-289.
Fox, J.G. 1971_53ya Applied Ergonomics, 2.2, 70-73. “Background music and industrial efficiency - a review”
Fox, J. G. (1983_41ya). “Industrial music”. In D. Oborne & M. Gruneberg (Eds.), The physical environment at work. New York: Wiley.
Furnham et al 1999_25ya “The distracting effects of vocal and instrumental music on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts”
Gladstones (1969_55ya) “Some effects of commercial background music on data preparation operators”. Occupational Psychology, 43: 213-222.
Hahn, S. L. “The effect of music in the learning and retention of lexical items in German”. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of Kansas, 1972_52ya.
Houston & Jones 1967_57ya, “Distraction and Stroop colour-word performance”, Journal of Experimental Psychology
Kaltsounis. B. “Effect of sound on creative performance”. Psychological Reports, 1973_51ya, 33. 737-738
Kellaris & Kent 1992_32ya “The influence of music on customer’s temporal perception”. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 4: 365-376.
Kiger 1989_35ya “Effects of music information load on a reading comprehension task”, Perceptual and Motor Skills
Kirkpatrick, 1943_81ya, “Music takes the mind away”. Personnel Journal, 22: 225±228.
Kjellberg & Skoldstrom 1991_33ya, “Noise annoyance during the performance of different non-auditory tasks”, Perceptual and Motor Skills
Mayfield & Moss 1989_35ya, “Effect of music tempo on task performance”. Psychological Reports, 65: 1283–1290.
McGrath, 1963_61ya. “Irrelevant stimulation and vigilance performance”. In D. N. Buckner & J. J. McGrath (eds.), Vigilance: a symposium. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Milliman, 1982_42ya, “The effects of background music upon the shopping behavior of supermarket patrons”. Journal of Marketing, 46: 86-91.
Milliman, 1986_38ya, “The influence of background music on the behavior of restaurant patrons”. Journal of Consumer Research, 13: 286±289.
Oldham, Cummings, Mischel, Schmidtke and Zhan, 1995_29ya, “Listen while you work? Quasi-experimental relations between personal-stereo headset use and employee work responses”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80: 547-564.
Parente 1976_48ya, “Music preference as a factor of music distraction”, Perceptual and Motor Skills
Perrewe and Mizerski 1987_37ya “Effect of music on perceptions of task characteristics”, Perceptual and Motor Skills
Smith 1961_63ya “Effects of industrial music in a work situation requiring complex mental activity”, Psychological Reports 8
Sogin 1988_36ya “Effect of three different musical styles of background music on coding by college-age students”, Perceptual and Motor Skills
Stainback, Stainback, & Hallahan, 1973_51ya “Effect of background music on learning”. Exceptional Children, 1973_51ya, 40, 109-110
Stanton 1975_49ya “Music and test anxiety: further evidence for an interaction”. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1975_49ya, 45, 80-82.
Tarriere & Wisner, 1962_62ya, “Effects of the administration of meaningful and meaningless noise during a vigilance task”. Travail humain 25, 1-28.
Uhrbrock 1961_63ya, “Music on the job; its influences on worker morale and productivity”, Personnel Psychology
Vitulli & McNeil 1990_34ya, “Short-term memory digit-span performances under auditory and visual contexts as a function of rate of digit presentation”, Perceptual and Motor Skills
Ware et al 1964_60ya “The role of experimenter attitude and contingent reinforcement in a display”. Hum. Factors 6 , 11 1-1 15.
Wokoun 1963_61ya “Vigilance with background music”. (Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. Human Engineering Lab. Rep. No. TM-16-63.)
Wokoun 1969_55ya, “Music for working”. Sci. J. 5 (11) , 33-38.
Wolf & Weiner 1972_52ya “Effects of four noise conditions on arithmetic performance”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1972_52ya, 35, 928-930.
Wolfe 1983_41ya “Effects of music loudness on task performance and self-report of college-aged students”, Journal of Research in Music Education
Venetjoki et al 2006_18ya, “The effect of speech and speech intelligibility on task performance”
Mehta et al 2012_12ya, “Is Noise Always Bad? Exploring the Effects of Ambient Noise on Creative Cognition”
Hughes2014, “Auditory distraction: A duplex-mechanism account”

The effect of background music and noise on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts S Dobbs, A Furnham… - Applied cognitive …, 2011

The effect of background music and background noise on the task performance of introverts and extraverts G Cassidy, RAR MacDonald - Psychology of Music, 2007

Disturbance effect of music on processing of verbal and spatial memories M Iwanaga, T Ito - Perceptual and motor skills, 2002_22ya - amsciepub.com

Music listening while you learn: No influence of background music on verbal learning L Jäncke, P Sandmann - Behavioral and Brain Functions, 2010

Effects of studying to music and post-study relaxation on reading comprehension C Etaugh, P Ptasnik - Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1982

Effects of vocal and instrumental music on visuospatial and verbal performance as moderated by studying preference and personality HJ Crawford, CM Strapp - Personality and individual differences, 1994

Effect of familiarity with background music on performance of simple and difficult reading comprehension tasks OM MILLIARD, P Tolin - Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1979

Musical distracters, personality type and cognitive performance in school children A Furnham, R Stephenson - Psychology of Music, 2007

Fast and loud background music disrupts reading comprehension http://pdf.thepdfportal.net/PDFFiles/160960.pdf Thompson et al 2012

The effects of background auditory interference and extraversion on creative and cognitive task performance https://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijps/article/download/4458/3770 T Chamorro-Premuzic, V Swami, A Terrado… - International Journal of …, 2009

The influence of distracting familiar vocal music on cognitive performance of introverts and extraverts C Avila, A Furnham, A McClelland - Psychology of Music, 2011

The impact of background music on adult listeners: A meta-analysis Kampfe et al 2011

T. Cockerton, S. Moore and D. Norman, “Cognitive test performance and background music”, Perceptual and Motor Skills 85 (1997_27ya), 1435–1438. Jensen (1931_93ya) Garlin & Owen2006

Smith & Morris 1977_47ya, “Differential effects of stimulative and sedative music anxiety, concentration, and performance”. Psychological Reports, 41, 1047–1053. Dubé & Morin, 2001_23ya Kallinen, 2002_22ya Wipplinger, 2007

H. Cantril and G.W. Allport, The Psychology of Radio, New York, Harper, 1935_89ya. G.W. Evans and D. Johnson, “Stress and open-office noise”, Journal of Applied Psychology 85 (2000_24ya), 779–783. H. Nittono, A. Tsuda, S. Akai and Y. Nakajima, “Tempo of background sound and performance speed”, Perceptual and Motor Skills 90 (2000), 1122. N. Ravaja and K. Kallinen, “Emotional effects of startling background music during reading news reports: The moderating influence of dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities”, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 45 (2004_20ya), 231–238. P.M. Scheufele, “Effects of progressive relaxation and classical music on measurements of attention, relaxation, and stress responses”, Journal of Behavioral Medicine 23(2000_24ya), 207–228.

Cauchard, F., Cane, J. E., & Weger, U. W. (2012_12ya). “Influence of Background Speech and Music in Interrupted Reading: An Eye-Tracking Study”. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(3), 381-390. Chou, P. T. M. (2010_14ya). “Attention Drainage Effect: How Background Music Effects Concentration in Taiwanese College Students”. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(1), 36-46. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ882124.pdf Downing, J. A., Carlson, J. K., Hoffman, J., Gray, D., & Thompson, A. (2004_20ya). “A Musical Interlude Using Music and Relaxation to Improve Reading Performance”. Intervention in school and clinic, 39(4), 246-250. Fassbender, E., Richards, D., Bilgin, A., Thompson, W. F., & Heiden, W. (2012_12ya). “VirSchool: The effect of background music and immersive display systems on memory for facts learned in an educational virtual environment”. Computers & Education, 58(1), 490-500. Newman Jr, R. I., Hunt, D. L., & Rhodes, F. (1966_58ya). “Effects of music on employee attitude and productivity in a skateboard factory”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 50(6), 493. - Pool, M. M. (2002_22ya). Distraction effects of background television on homework performance. Noise and Vibration Worldwide, 33(1), 24-28. - Pool, M. M., Koolstra, C. M., & Voort, T. H. (2003_21ya). “The impact of background radio and television on high school students’ homework performance”. Journal of Communication, 53(1), 74-87. - Pool, M. M., Van der Voort, T. H., Beentjes, J. W., & Koolstra, C. M. (2000_24ya). “Background television as an inhibitor of performance on easy and difficult homework assignments”. Communication Research, 27(3), 293-326.

Foster NA, Valentine ER. The effect of concurrent music on autobiographical recall in dementia clients. Musicae Scientiae. 1998_26ya;11:143–155. Ho C, Mason O, Spence C Acta Psychol (Amst). 2007_17ya May; 125(1):117-28. “An investigation into the temporal dimension of the Mozart effect: evidence from the attentional blink task” “Investigating the enhancing effect of music on autobiographical memory in mild Alzheimer’s disease”. Irish M, Cunningham CJ, Walsh JB, Coakley D, Lawlor BA, Robertson IH, Coen RF Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2006_18ya; 22(1):108-20. “Emotional valence and arousal interact in attentional control.” Jefferies LN, Smilek D, Eich E, Enns JT; Psychol Sci. 2008_16ya Mar; 19(3):290-5. “Does music enhance cognitive performance in healthy older adults? The Vivaldi effect.”, Mammarella N, Fairfield B, Cornoldi C; Aging Clin Exp Res. 2007_17ya Oct; 19(5):394-9. “The Mozart effect: evidence for the arousal hypothesis.”, Roth EA, Smith KH, Percept Mot Skills. 2008_16ya Oct; 107(2):396-402. “Listening to Mozart does not enhance backwards digit span performance”. Steele KM, Ball TN, Runk R; Percept Mot Skills. 1997_27ya Jun; 84(3 Pt 2):1179-84. “Music enhances category fluency in healthy older adults and Alzheimer’s disease patients.”, Thompson RG, Moulin CJ, Hayre S, Jones RW; Exp Aging Res. 2005_19ya Jan-Mar; 31(1):91-9. Thompson WF, Schellenberg EG, Husain G. “Arousal, mood, and the Mozart effect”. Psychological Science. 2001_23ya;12:248–251

“The rhythm’s gonna get ya’–background music in primary classrooms and its effect on behavior and attainment”, Bloor2009

“The Effects of Background Music on High School Students’ Reading Comprehension”, Li et al 2012

“The Effect of Music on the Level of Mental Concentration and its Temporal Change”, Mori et al

[HTML] The effects of background noise on cognitive performance during a 70 hour simulation of conditions aboard the International Space Station DG Smith, JV Baranski, MM Thompson… - Noise and …, 2003_21ya - noiseandhealth.org

Eye movements and reading comprehension while listening to preferred and non-preferred study music R Johansson, K Holmqvist, F Mossberg… - Psychology of …, 2012_12ya - pom.sagepub.com

The influence of background music on recognition processes of Chinese characters: An ERP study B Liu, Y Huang, Z Wang, G Wu - Neuroscience letters, 2012_12ya - Elsevier

[CITATION] The effect of background music on learning words DH Schuster - Journal of Accelerative Learning and Teaching, 1985

Using Background Music To Enhance Memory and Improve Learning. S Anderson, J Henke, M McLaughlin, M Ripp, P Tuffs - 2000_24ya - ERIC

BACKGROUND MUSIC AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE 1, 2 LA Angel, DJ Polzella, GC Elvers - Perceptual and motor skills, 2010_14ya - amsciepub.com

Can preference for background music mediate the irrelevant sound effect? N Perham, J Vizard - Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2011_13ya - Wiley Online Library

The gender difference in distraction of background music and noise on the cognitive task performance Y Jing, S Jing, C Huajian… - … (ICNC), 2012_12ya Eighth …, 2012_12ya - ieeexplore.ieee.org

BACKGROUND MUSIC PREFERENCE AND STANDARDIZED COGNITIVE TEST PERFORMANCE RM LESSL - clearinghouse.missouriwestern.edu

THE EFFECTS OF MUSIC APPRECIATION ON TEST-TAKING ABILITY SM METZNER - clearinghouse.missouriwestern.edu

An investigation of cognitive test performance across conditions of silence, background noise and music as a function of neuroticism J Reynolds, A McClelland, A Furnham - Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 2014 - Taylor & Francis

Background sound modulates the performance of odor discrimination task HS Seo, V Gudziol, A Hähner, T Hummel - Experimental brain research, 2011_13ya - Springer

Does Music Help or Hinder the English Language Learner? A Review of the Literature V Schrader - 2010_14ya - files.vickischrader.webnode.com

Disturbance effect of music on processing of verbal and spatial memories M Iwanaga, T Ito - Perceptual and motor skills, 2002_22ya - amsciepub.com

The Interaction between Music and Task Performance: The Tower of Hanoi & Missionaries and Cannibals http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncp/f/Jorge_Piocuda_Thesis.pdf J Piocuda - 2009_15ya - libres.uncg.edu

Effects of lyrical music on reading comprehension Z Liapis, Z Giddens, M Uhlenbrock

Music While You Work: The Effects of Background Music on Test Performance amongst Extroverts and Introverts. http://194.81.189.19/ojs/index.php/apass/article/view/209/320 H Mistry - Journal of Applied Psychology and Social Science, 2015

[BOOK] The effects of background music on the reading performance of Taiwanese ESL students P Chou - 2007_17ya - books.google.com

The Effect of Music Preference on Complex Task Performance http://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1089&context=globaltides J McDonald - Global Tides, 2013_11ya - digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu

Correlation between work concentration level and background music: A pilot study http://scholar.fju.edu.tw/%E8%AA%B2%E7%A8%8B%E5%A4%A7%E7%B6%B1/upload/026299/handout/982/D-7003-14212-B.pdf YN Shih, RH Huang, H Chiang - Work, 2009_15ya - scholar.fju.edu.tw

(note that Shih et al 2009_15ya is an RCT, despite the title)

DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSIC AFFECT PERFORMANCE ON THE WONDERLIC PERSONNEL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE 1 CC Verpaelst, LG Standing - Perceptual and motor skills, 2007

Effect of musical experience on verbal memory in Williams syndrome: evidence from a novel word learning task MA Martens, MK Jungers, AL Steele - Neuropsychologia, 2011_13ya - Elsevier

Music listening while you learn: No influence of background music on verbal learning L Jancke, P Sandmann - Behavioral and Brain Functions, 2010_14ya - biomedcentral.com

Personality and music: An effect on arithmetic performance S Ahlawat, P Batra, A Sharma - Indian Journal of Positive …, 2012

“Background music: effects on attention performance”, Shih et al 2012

The effect of background music on cognitive performance in musicians and non-musicians LLM PATSTON, L TIPPETT - Music Perception /doc/psychology/music/distraction/2011-patston.pdf

“Influence of background music on work attention in clients with chronic schizophrenia”, Shih et al 2014

“Uso de la música para mejorar tareas motoras de los trabajadores” [“Music use to improve workers’ motor tasks”], Gómez2017 (review)

“The effects of background music on the work attention performance between musicians and non-musicians”, Wu & Shih2019