“Cramming: A Barrier to Student Success, A Way to Beat the System or an Effective Learning Strategy”, Edward F. Vacha, Michael J. McBride1993-03 (spaced repetition)⁠:

This research used college students’ study diaries to examine both the effect of cramming on grades and the characteristics of students who cram.

Cramming has received very little study, and none of the existing literature measures its actual effect on grades. Despite this lack of empirical evidence, most discussions of cramming describe it as an ineffective and undesirable learning strategy most common among students in dull courses with multiple choice exams that call for little individual thought, creativity and understanding of general principles.

Our research suggests that cramming is an effective approach, it is most widespread in courses using take-home essay examinations and major research papers, and it provides students who use it successfully with several benefits.

…Our findings clearly show that the commonly held view that cramming is an ineffective strategy should be reexamined. Crammers’ grades in the course are as good as or better than students who use other strategies, and the longer students are in college, the more likely they will cram. Crammers’ grade point averages are also relatively high, and they put in a substantial amount of study time. In fact, crammers appear to study more hours than most students, perhaps because they must make up for the inefficiency of massed study with more total hours. While crammers study more than most students, their study strategy also gives them a great deal of uninterrupted time to devote to other activities—perhaps to other courses or to extracurricular activities. Furthermore, cramming does not appear to be an adaptation to poor teaching or to over-reliance on multiple choice testing. Crammers are as interested in their courses as other students, and cramming is most widespread in courses that require extensive work outside class. Good students cram, and cramming appears to be most common among experienced students taking courses requiring a great deal of writing.